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Digital Signage: An Overview Digital signage is the use of digitally powered signs (such as plasma display panels, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), kiosk stations, computer monitors and normal televisions) to replace and enhance traditional media. Digital signage is revolutionizing the media and information industries by allowing the central and rapid update of content and its immediate delivery to specific audiences in specific locations.

Components of Digital Signage The components needed for a digital signage system include:

An authoring console, equipped with content management software, allowing the definition of content in a variety of playback formats.

A server, to which finished content is uploaded and from where it is distributed to different displays in the network.

A distribution infrastructure, consisting of a data network or fiber optic or CAT5 cable, which broadcasts media from the server to the displays.

Digital signage displays, which can be plasma displays, LCD monitors, CRT monitors, or kiosk stations.

Benefits of Digital Signage Digital signs have already brought significant benefits to businesses and media vendors alike:

Attention grabbing advertising A digital sign brings innovation and movement to previously static media locations, and has the power to get customers’ attention, making it a particularly effective form of advertising.

Real-time advertising and information Digital signage allows advertising and information to be updated on the fly from one remote authoring station and broadcast immediately to audiences regardless of location.

Relevant audiences With digital signage, advertising focuses on the best potential customer: an existing one. Supermarkets have already found that current customers are more likely to purchase products advertised on their digital signs. Cost savings Every time digital signage users change their message or campaign, they save on printing costs and processing time. Profit center opportunities Businesses can create instant profit centers by selling advertising time on their digital signs to customers or suppliers.

DIGITAL SIGNAGE Uses of Digital Signage It is not surprising that, with all the benefits of digital signage, there are so many uses for it worldwide. They include: Advertising networks In-store advertising Interactive kiosks Tradeshow displays Corporate identity branding Electronic menus and lobby displays Branch office communication Campus bulletin boards Community bulletin boards Arrival and departure schedules Franchise communication systems Emergency announcement systems Corporate communication systems Back office employee training

Digital Signage Distribution Technology: “What Lies Beneath” When considering a digital signage project, users usually focus on display types and content management software. For the integrator, however, there is an important component that the user rarely considers: the distribution technology and platform. This infrastructure transmits the digital video and audio from the server to the appropriate displays, and is a key contributor to actual digital signage performance. In addition, as the connecting component for all displays, the distribution technology can be a significant part of the project budget. That’s why choosing the correct distribution technology is vital in ensuring a successful digital signage installation. Options for Digital Signage Distribution

There are three main options for digital signage distribution:

Data network Fiber-optic cable CAT5 cable

In this paper, these options will be presented together with the core considerations in choosing a distribution technology:

Cost Performance Existing infrastructure

Digital Signage Distribution Options: Platforms & Combinations

Each platform has its own benefits and drawbacks. When harnessing more than one platform. There are a number of interesting combinations as discussed below.

Data Network Platform A data network platform uses a computer network infrastructure in order to transmit content in the form of compressed multi-media files (such as MPEG files) from the management station to the central server and from there to the computer connected to the display device. The central server handles distribution to multiple displays, and the display-end computer decompresses the file for display on the display device. Alternatively, if only one display is required, the network can transmit the compressed file directly from the management station to the display-end computer, which then decompresses and displays the file.

Benefits & Drawbacks The advisability of data networks depends largely on existing infrastructure. If there is an existing computer network infrastructure, using a data network platform for digital signage can save costs significantly. However, if no computer network already exists, the need to implement such an infrastructure will increase costs considerably.

An additional cost related to data networks is caused by the need for display devices to be connected to local computers or equipped with embedded CPUs, resulting in extra investment in hardware, an important factor when costing the project as a whole.

In addition, from a performance standpoint, using a data network platform has several disadvantages. A data network platform limits the user to the compression technologies available on the market today, technologies that significantly downgrade the quality of the multimedia content and the displays’ dependence on the network is another major consideration for 24×7 locales that cannot tolerate display downtime.

Fiber Optic Extenders Fiber optic cable is a transmission medium favored for applications that need high bandwidth, long distances, and complete immunity to electrical interference. That makes it ideal for digital signage, which requires high resolution and transmission over long distances. Unlike network platforms, fiber optic cable does not require CPUs or special software at the display end. All that is required is a transmitter and receiving unit for each display.

There are two options for fiber-optic cable: single mode or multi-mode. Single-mode fiber provides a higher transmission rate and up to fifty times more distance than multimode, but it also costs more. In general, the decision between different types of fiber should be the result of a simple cost-benefit evaluation: the distance and level of resolution or performance required versus the acceptable investment in distribution technology.

Benefits & Drawbacks Fiber optic cable is optimal for transmitting high-resolution multi-media over long distances, a feature which makes it particularly appropriate for digital signage. Fiber optic cable provides network-independent performance without downtime or transmission lags. It can transfer media over 40 kilometers or more. In addition, it requires no special infrastructure, software or display-side CPUs.

However, fiber optic is a point-to-point technology – in other words, a pure fiber optic cable solution will not allow multiple displays to receive output from a single video source. This can prove a significant obstacle for multiple-display digital signage installations such as malls and airports.

In addition, fiber optic cable has a high price relative to other technologies. Fiber optic cable’s expense can prove prohibitive when planning a large digital signage project. A possible solution, discussed below, is the combination of fiber optic cable with other, less expensive solutions, allowing the user to benefit from fiber optic cable’s advantages while reducing the total cost of the project.

CAT5 Distribution Systems CAT5 cable is also a transmission medium favored for local installations that need high bandwidth and high resolution without any existing network infrastructure. CAT5 cable technology provides these advantages at a considerably lower cost than fiber optic cable. CAT5 technology supports real-time multi-media transfer through inexpensive, low density, twisted pair cabling.

Benefits & Drawbacks In certain ways, CAT5 technology as a distribution platform combines the best aspects of fiber-optic and network technologies. Like fiber optic technology, CAT5 technology requires no special software or display-side CPUs, and is completely hardware-based and network independent. Only transmitter and receiving units are required. While CAT5 covers shorter distances than fiber optic cable (typically 100-300 m/300-1000 ft), CAT5 cable costs considerably less than fiber optic cable, making it a leading option for combination solutions which overcome CAT5 cable’s distance limitations.

In addition, CAT5 technology can be used in point-to-multi-point applications, allowing the broadcast of media content from one central source to hundreds of display stations. As a result, CAT5 technology alone or combined with fiber optic cable is an ideal solution for multiple-display digital signage installations.

Due to its network independence, CAT5 cable allows high performance, real-time transmission of high-resolution multi-media without slowdowns or downtime. If CAT5 technology is combined with a BIOS-level hardware solution for remote access over IP (such as a KVM IP extender), it can even allow remote maintenance and trouble shooting for the content server that manages the content to be displayed, minimizing down time and loss of investment.

CAT5 cable’s low expense, ease of installation, and flexibility make it a good choice for a primary distribution technology as well as a leading “last mile” option for combination platforms.

Combination Technologies Because of the advantages and drawbacks of each of the technologies listed above, it is frequently advisable to use a combination of technologies for optimal performance at the lowest possible cost.

Fiber optic and CAT5 cable When dealing with high-resolution media over large distances that must be broadcast to a group of displays, a combination of fiber optic and CAT5 cable is the optimal solution. In this case, fiber optic cable is used for distance broadcasting together with a local CAT5 video broadcaster for “splitting” the broadcast to the various displays. This is a simple solution to install, since all that is needed is to connect the fiber optic receiver with the CAT5 video broadcaster. And the use of CAT5 cable for the last 50-150 meters/150-500 feet of cabling instead of fiber optic cable can provide significant savings.

Benefits High resolution & performance Hardware solution Point to multi-point No special infrastructure or display-side software required Network independent Long distance Supports groups of displays Lower cost than pure fiber optic

Conclusion: By combining the two technologies into the same solution and using the true advantages of each type of cable you were able to save almost 17% or $17,500 in direct costs to your customer.

Data Network and CAT5 cable When managing multiple groups of digital signage displays from a remote location, a combination of data networking and local CAT5 cabling can give the user the best of both worlds: remote management over IP combined with low-cost and network-independent infrastructure. The “last mile” use of CAT5 in place of data networks at the display end saves the cost of a computer (or CPU) for every display. All that is needed is a local central server, which is remotely managed through the data network. The local server is connected to multiple displays through CAT5 technology, freeing the local installation from network dependence. The digital signage of each location is network-independent, and each installation is far less expensive to implement. Bandwidth issues are also surmounted by transmitting media to the local computer ahead of time for scheduling on-the-fly. At the time of broadcast, media is transmitted locally over CAT5 cabling, which is network independent and not limited by bandwidth.

Benefits Point to multi-point High resolution & performance No local infrastructure or display-side software required Locally network independent Low cost

Conclusion Distribution infrastructure is an important part of digital signage, and choosing the correct distribution technology is a crucial element of any digital signage project. While each distribution technology has its advantages and drawbacks, the correct combination of technologies can achieve low cost and high performance no matter what the project size or complexity.

Chamonix ski resort is a unique town with the towering Monte Bianco and majestic glaciers. The group enjoy going parapenting or sometimes eating out. I invariably fly from Dallas and stay at a Chamonix chalet for the duration of my holiday.

My family and I previously visited InterContinental Grand Stanford Hong Kong unfortunately it sometimes didn’t meet the standards of its marketing: With views of Victoria Harbour and the Hong Kong skyline, InterContinental Grand Stanford Hong Kong is situated in the Tsimshatsui East shopping and entertainment area and approximately 22 miles from Hong Kong Chek Lap Kok International Airport. Macau Airport is about 50 miles away. A ferry terminal is directly in front of the hotel. The hotel’s complimentary shuttle bus also makes getting around Tsimshatsui easy. The terminus for trains into Mainland China is within walking distance of the hotel. The Jade Market and the Temple Street night markets are a little further. Hotel amenities include the swimming pool, fitness center, meeting facilities, and business center. Onsite drinks and dining are available at the Mistral, Belvedere, Hoi King Heen, Cafe Rendezvous, Tiffany’s New York Bar, and Belvedere Lounge. The hotel also offers 24-hour room service, onsite parking (fee), concierge assistance, babysitting, a beauty salon, laundry/dry cleaning, a florist, currency exchange, and tour assistance.

However in Chamonix France the lodge is always exceptional. Also dining out in my favorite cafe, First Watch Restaurant, munching squash casserole is a delight. Chamonix Mont Blanc France is a large enough town to insure that there is lots of things for the skier to do. With a ice rink and a number of restaurants, Chamonix provides a combination of walking, French alpine charm and sightseeing which not many resorts can hope to rival.

One could spend a lifetime learning the many facets of the art of the poker bluff. The bluff has a well known empirical definition, which is simply betting with the worst hand in an attempt to make opponents fold. Many players bluff far too often in spots where they have little chance of making a better hand fold. By decreasing your bluffing frequency and choosing better spots to try and take the pot, you can increase your win rate and keep your opponents guessing.

The first thing you should take into account before executing a pokerbluff is how many players are in the pot. After the flop, your chances of folding out two or more hands with a bet is much less likely than if you were heads up with an opponent. Other components to the hand that effect your ability to bluff are your position, and whether or not the pot was raised preflop, and by whom. Do you have position on the preflop raiser? If you are heads up with him, it may be a good spot to take off a card on the flop and float your opponent, then bet or raise the turn in an attempt to take the pot away from him. However, with more than one other player in the pot, a move like this would be suicide. It is hardly ever feasible to bluff two players out of a pot.

Another factor to consider when bluffing in poker is your opponent. Is he tight and risk averse, or is he a loose action player who will call down with any two cards? Obviously, you don’t want to make a bluff attempt when your only chance of winning is to make your hand on the turn or river, or hope your opponent misses everything.

The most difficult bluffing situation is a pot that has been raised and reraised, and then checked to you on a later street. Only expert players should attempt bluffs in these situations, and usually taking away a large pot on the turn or river can only be executed against another good player who is capable of critically thinking his way into folding a good hand. For a beginner, your caution spots for bluffing should be large pots on later streets, and multiway pots with loose opponents. Neither of these situations should ever warrant an ill-advised bluff attempt.

Public liability indemnity is essential as all businesses are at jeopardy to some degree. Even if nothing grim has yet gone on with your business assets doesn’t guarantee that it will not in the future. If somebody is wounded, or their belongings lost, it is your legal requirement to appropriately reimburse them. This expense can be horrifically pricey, depending on the particular brand of case.

Yet, you do have numerous ways to shield yourself against this emergency. Going for public liability indemnity allows you to breathe slightly easier. If a customer claim is very expensive, the insurance corporation will be available to present you with a protection net. Its their obligation to keep you secure from any claims and legal charges brought against you. This leaves you free to concentrate on actually doing business, rather than worrying about what may possibly happen. The following are numerous instances of times when public liability cover could come in helpful.

Owners of plumbing organisations usually get the job done quick & right. Though, on occasion something can go horribly wrong. For instance, should you inadvertently damage a client’s water pipes whilst on the job, destroying belongings like that of computers and flooring, public liability cover will be there to pay the expense. Help protect your firm with Insured Risks Professional Indemnity Insurance.

Another illustration is that of a marketing corporation. If a client were to injure an ankle in your office, even if it’s not your fault, you would be held legally accountable. Nevertheless, with public liability insurance you would not have to resolve the claim at all.

In a similar example, injury caused to a spectator by a worker on a construction site is the legal accountability of the company’s proprietor. This sort of claim can become exceptionally pricey indeed, unless you obtain the right insurance protection.

If you’re on the look out for a new digital camcorder then you
need to know what type of features to look for. It’s easy to get
confused and hard to make sense of all the specifications.
Looking for the right features is the key in finding the best camcorder for your needs. While you compare
digital camcorder reviews and ratings, there are some items to
consider.

You should have a general idea of what you need the mini dv camcorder for. Do you need a video camera
for home movies? Or are you looking for a professional
camcorder, for your next feature film? Think about what you are
looking for so your camcorder comparison shopping won’t take as
long.

Zoom

All digital camcorders have a zoom feature. Older analog
camcorders only had optical zoom, but new digital video cameras
have both optical and digital zoom. There is a difference
between these two types of zoom. Optical zoom physically
lengthens the lens,and will still give your videos high image
quality. However digital zoom basically blows up the scene in a
digital format. The problem with digital zoom is that when you
zoom in on a subject the video becomes pixilated and blocky with
little squares giving the video a blurred and distorted
look.

If you’re wondering which zoom is better and more important,
optical zoom. The more distance that your optical zoom can do,
the more flexibility that you have when focusing in on a
subject. I suggest a minimum of 10x optical zoom for most
consumers.

CCD Sensors and Resolution

The video quality in a dv camcorder is dependant on the CCD, which is an
abbreviation for charged-coupled device. The CCD is an image
sensor that converts light into pixels to produce images; your
digital camera works in the same way. You can find camcorders
with one CCD or three CCDs. One CCD camcorders are less costly
however you will compromise the color quality in the video. 3
CCD camcorders on the other hand provide the best color quality.
The reason being is that there are 3 CCDs. Digital camcorder
models with three CCDs (one each for red, green and blue) give
your video the most vivid colors possible, but the price is more
than 1 CCD video cameras.

Viewfinders & LCD Screens

It’s important to find the best possible viewfinder when
comparing camcorders. The viewfinder is the heart of the
camcorder without it you can’t see what you are filming.
Viewfinders cam in black and white, if you buy a cheap camcorder you will be stuck with a black and
white screen. Personally I like my color screen, you can see the
exact color and video quality as it will appear in the video.
Sizes for LCD screen range from 2 to 4 inches across.

Digital Video Editing & Still images

Almost all newer digital video camcorders have FireWire
(IEEE 1394). This feature enables you to transfer digital video
footage from your camcorder to your computer system in the
fastest possible way. The newest models even have the ability to
take digital still images and video and transfer them to your
computer for emailing to friends and family.

The HDTV has become increasingly popular since it’s
introduction. There are many well-known electronic manufacturers
that have designed many models of the HD style TV. There are
multiple sizes, styles and colors that can be attributed to a HD
television. Likewise, there are various price tags found on the
HD television. With so many choices and decisions ahead of you,
don’t feel overwhelmed; there are many great resources to help
make your search as quick and painless as possible.

HDTV has been around since the mid 1960’s. In Japan, the first
model of the HDTV was created. The innovative electronic
geniuses of the United States were quick to follow and the race
to perfecting the high definition technology was off to the
races around the mid 1990’s.

Basically, the term “HD” refers to the quality of the broadcast
signal that is sent through the television set. The high
definition signal represents images that are as crystal clear
and lifelike as possible. When you watch a program via the HDTV,
you will quickly understand why it is becoming the favorite
method of watching TV! The HD signal is digital in nature and
provides viewers a 16:9 wide screen format, the same as used in
movie theaters. The incredible, lifelike images displayed
through HD televisions are unbelievable! You can literally feel
like you at the racetrack or on the football field! If you are
watching a concert, you will have a front row seat to the
magical madness, too!

Many of the leading television manufacturers make at least one
model of the HD television set, including: Sony, Panasonic,
Samsung, Sharp, Toshiba, Hitachi, RCA, JVC, Mitsubishi, Pioneer
and Magnavox. There are multiple sizes of the HDTV available,
from as small as 13 inches to as large as 85 inches!

3 types to choose from

There are three different formats that offer the HD technology,
including: CRT (paints the image onto the screen. This style is
perfect in any lighting condition and from every angle.), LCD
(uses 2 different polarized, transparent panels to house a
liquid in the middle.) and the Plasma (digital images at a high
resolution are created.). Be sure to do a little research to
find the format that you will prefer.

Rear-projection CRT televisions are older technology. CRT TV’s
use three separate cathode ray tubes to create red, green, and
blue and the TV combines the three beams before magnifying and
projecting the image. The image quality isn’t as good as Plasma
or LCD technology.

Flat-Panel LCD TVs (liquid crystal display) technology are
designed to create sharp, bright images in any lighting
condition. LCD flat screen TV models work by shining light
through pixel cells, with each cell containing a red, green, and
blue component.

Plasma TVs are the thinnest of all types of high definition televisions. You can find a
huge range of widths, from 36, right up to 72″ inches that offer
amazing color accuracy and saturation.

The 2 different types of HDTV

There are two types of hdtv systems, ones that are HDTV-ready
and other systems that have an integrated system. HDTV-ready is
the definition for a television that is capable high definition
programming with the installation of a receiver or tuner. An
integrated system is a television with a built in HDTV receiver
enabling you to watch programming right out of the box.

If you are not sure as to which brand, size or format you
prefer, there are many resources that you can access to make the
decision a little easier. Other consumers, that have made a
purchase of an HDTV, have written
HDTV reviews on their TV of choice. These reviews are
unbiased in that some may be favorable and other may not. One
thing you can count on is that these reviews are not biased;
everyday consumers, like yourself, write them. No one likes to
spend their hard earned money on a product that they would have
never given a second glance, had they been forewarned. Well,
with reviews and ratings from other consumers, you will have a
“heads up”!

When you are in the market for a great new TV, the HDTV is a
perfect choice! There are many sizes, styles, formats and prices
available. You should have absolutely no problem finding the
perfect one for your home or business. If you demand only the
best in your life, the HD style TV will fit right in!

Richard Gazzo is a successful writer with info HDTV reviews
& Plasma TV reviews. Find information on Sony plasma TV, Pioneer Plasma TV, Panasonic
plasma TV models and more. Reprint
permission given will all hyper links intact. ©
http://www.hdtv-n-plasma-tv-reviews.com/

The great observatories of the world are responsible for many of the prolific astronomical observations of the twentieth century. Telescopic photograpy, radio dish data collection, and infrared imaging are among the many different techniques observatories have been able to employ to learn about the heavens.

The Palomar Observatory may be the most famous of all. With five telescopes operated by Cal-Tech’s graduate and post-doctoral students, the 200-inch Hale telescope is the most famous of all Palomar’s telescopes. Built in 1949, it was intended to overcome the onset of the southern California smog problem. Other noteworthy telescopes operated at Cal-Tech include a telescope to search for supernovae, a comet hunter, a trio of sky cameras looking for planetary and other celestial phenomena, an interferometer capable of detecting the slightest wobble in the orbits of a planet, and a sixty inch telescope responsible for spotting the first brown dwarf circling a companion star.

Cal Tech is also directly involved in the operation of the Keck and Lick Observatories. The Keck Observatory, located on top of Hawaii’s dormant Mauna Kea volcano contains the world’s largest optical and infrared telescopes. Its twin Keck telescopes stand eight stories high and weigh 300 tons each. Lick Observatory is located on 4200 foot Mount Hamilton east of San Jose, California. It contains nine research telescopes with the largest being the Shane 3-meter Reflector. This telescope is used to observe everything from our local solar system to faraway galaxies.

The Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles is known for its12-inch Zeiss Refracting telescope. This telescope’s fame is largely due to the fact that it has been used to allow public viewing of the universe since 1935. More than five million people have looked through its lenses since under the guidance of experienced Telescope Demonstrators. The Griffith Observatory was also known for its laserium light shows in previous years although they have been discontinued at present.

The Hayden Planetarium in Boston is more than just a planetarium. It is also a museum. Along with its Gilliland Observatory, laser-light shows and a rotating star simulator are among some of the different multi-media astronomical experiences available to the public.

The Greenwich Observatory in Cambridge, England was established in 1675 by King Charles II in order partially to fix longitude readings. It currently fixes the origin of the worldwide time reference point of Greenwich Mean Time. An observatory in Portland Maine is being restored as a famous architectural monument. Another observatory of note is the University of Chicago’s Yerkes Observatory with its five telescopes.

All of these observatories have added to the vast array of knowledge now known about the universe. Their importance to the history of astronomy, as well as their continuing usefulness, can not be overemphasized.

1) Palomar observed: For more than 50 years, science above and beyond; Scott LaFee; San Diego Union Tribune; November 2, 2005
2) CalTech Astronomy Website;
3) UC Observatories Website
4) Yerkes Observatory Website;
5) Griffith Observatory Website;
6) Observatory view worth preserving; by John Alphonse.
7) Hayden Planetarium Website.
The Astronomical Society of Edinburgh: A Guide to Edinburgh’s Popular Observatory

David Craig
M.S. Physics – University of Minnesota
B.S. Computer Science – University of Oregon

Click here for more fascinating astronomy articles as well as the most up to date selection of Nasa products from the Space Store, Nasa’s only approved merchandiser.

Visit : www.drvsrs.com/smart.htm

About the Author

Visit : www.drvsrs.com/drvsrs.htm

That psychoactive medication alters behaviour and mood is indisputable. So do illicit and legal drugs, certain foods, and all interpersonal interactions. That the changes brought about by prescription are desirable – is debatable and involves tautological thinking. If a certain pattern of behaviour is described as (socially) “dysfunctional” or (psychologically) “sick” – clearly, every change would be welcomed as “healing” and every agent of transformation would be called a “cure”.

The same applies to the alleged heredity of mental illness. Single genes or gene complexes are frequently “associated” with mental health diagnoses, personality traits, or behaviour patterns. But too little is known to establish irrefutable sequences of causes-and-effects. Even less is proven about the interaction of nature and nurture, genotype and phenotype, the plasticity of the brain and the psychological impact of trauma, abuse, upbringing, role models, peers, and other environmental elements.

Nor is the distinction between psychotropic substances and talk therapy that clear-cut. Words and the interaction with the therapist also affect the brain, its processes and chemistry – albeit more slowly and, perhaps, more profoundly and irreversibly. Medicines – as David Kaiser reminds us in “Against Biologic Psychiatry” (Psychiatric Times, Volume XIII, Issue 12, December 1996) – treat symptoms, not the underlying processes that yield them.

IV. The Variance of Mental Disease

If mental illnesses are bodily and empirical, they should be invariant both temporally and spatially, across cultures and societies. This, to some degree, is, indeed, the case. Psychological diseases are not context dependent – but the pathologizing of certain behaviours is. Suicide, substance abuse, narcissism, eating disorders, antisocial ways, schizotypal symptoms, depression, even psychosis are considered sick by some cultures – and utterly normative or advantageous in others.

This was to be expected. The human mind and its dysfunctions are alike around the world. But values differ from time to time and from one place to another. Hence, disagreements about the propriety and desirability of human actions and inaction are bound to arise in a symptom-based diagnostic system.

As long as the pseudo-medical definitions of mental health disorders continue to rely exclusively on signs and symptoms – i.e., mostly on observed or reported behaviours – they remain vulnerable to such discord and devoid of much-sought universality and rigor.

V. Mental Disorders and the Social Order

The mentally sick receive the same treatment as carriers of AIDS or SARS or the Ebola virus or smallpox. They are sometimes quarantined against their will and coerced into involuntary treatment by medication, psychosurgery, or electroconvulsive therapy. This is done in the name of the greater good, largely as a preventive policy.

Conspiracy theories notwithstanding, it is impossible to ignore the enormous interests vested in psychiatry and psychopharmacology. The multibillion dollar industries involving drug companies, hospitals, managed healthcare, private clinics, academic departments, and law enforcement agencies rely, for their continued and exponential growth, on the propagation of the concept of “mental illness” and its corollaries: treatment and research.

VI. Mental Ailment as a Useful Metaphor

Abstract concepts form the core of all branches of human knowledge. No one has ever seen a quark, or untangled a chemical bond, or surfed an electromagnetic wave, or visited the unconscious. These are useful metaphors, theoretical entities with explanatory or descriptive power.

“Mental health disorders” are no different. They are shorthand for capturing the unsettling quiddity of “the Other”. Useful as taxonomies, they are also tools of social coercion and conformity, as Michel Foucault and Louis Althusser observed. Relegating both the dangerous and the idiosyncratic to the collective fringes is a vital technique of social engineering.

The aim is progress through social cohesion and the regulation of innovation and creative destruction. Psychiatry, therefore, is reifies society’s preference of evolution to revolution, or, worse still, to mayhem. As is often the case with human endeavour, it is a noble cause, unscrupulously and dogmatically pursued.

VII. The Insanity Defense

“It is an ill thing to knock against a deaf-mute, an imbecile, or a minor. He that wounds them is culpable, but if they wound him they are not culpable.” (Mishna, Babylonian Talmud)

If mental illness is culture-dependent and mostly serves as an organizing social principle – what should we make of the insanity defense (NGRI- Not Guilty by Reason of Insanity)?

A person is held not responsible for his criminal actions if s/he cannot tell right from wrong (“lacks substantial capacity either to appreciate the criminality (wrongfulness) of his conduct” – diminished capacity), did not intend to act the way he did (absent “mens rea”) and/or could not control his behavior (“irresistible impulse”). These handicaps are often associated with “mental disease or defect” or “mental retardation”.

Mental health professionals prefer to talk about an impairment of a “person’s perception or understanding of reality”. They hold a “guilty but mentally ill” verdict to be contradiction in terms. All “mentally-ill” people operate within a (usually coherent) worldview, with consistent internal logic, and rules of right and wrong (ethics). Yet, these rarely conform to the way most people perceive the world. The mentally-ill, therefore, cannot be guilty because s/he has a tenuous grasp on reality.

Yet, experience teaches us that a criminal maybe mentally ill even as s/he maintains a perfect reality test and thus is held criminally responsible (Jeffrey Dahmer comes to mind). The “perception and understanding of reality”, in other words, can and does co-exist even with the severest forms of mental illness.

This makes it even more difficult to comprehend what is meant by “mental disease”. If some mentally ill maintain a grasp on reality, know right from wrong, can anticipate the outcomes of their actions, are not subject to irresistible impulses (the official position of the American Psychiatric Association) – in what way do they differ from us, “normal” folks?

This is why the insanity defense often sits ill with mental health pathologies deemed socially “acceptable” and “normal” – such as religion or love.

Consider the following case:

A mother bashes the skulls of her three sons. Two of them die. She claims to have acted on instructions she had received from God. She is found not guilty by reason of insanity. The jury determined that she “did not know right from wrong during the killings.”

But why exactly was she judged insane?

Her belief in the existence of God – a being with inordinate and inhuman attributes – may be irrational.

But it does not constitute insanity in the strictest sense because it conforms to social and cultural creeds and codes of conduct in her milieu. Billions of people faithfully subscribe to the same ideas, adhere to the same transcendental rules, observe the same mystical rituals, and claim to go through the same experiences. This shared psychosis is so widespread that it can no longer be deemed pathological, statistically speaking.

She claimed that God has spoken to her.

As do numerous other people. Behavior that is considered psychotic (paranoid-schizophrenic) in other contexts is lauded and admired in religious circles. Hearing voices and seeing visions – auditory and visual delusions – are considered rank manifestations of righteousness and sanctity.

Perhaps it was the content of her hallucinations that proved her insane?

She claimed that God had instructed her to kill her boys. Surely, God would not ordain such evil?

Alas, the Old and New Testaments both contain examples of God’s appetite for human sacrifice. Abraham was ordered by God to sacrifice Isaac, his beloved son (though this savage command was rescinded at the last moment). Jesus, the son of God himself, was crucified to atone for the sins of humanity.

A divine injunction to slay one’s offspring would sit well with the Holy Scriptures and the Apocrypha as well as with millennia-old Judeo-Christian traditions of martyrdom and sacrifice.

Her actions were wrong and incommensurate with both human and divine (or natural) laws.

Yes, but they were perfectly in accord with a literal interpretation of certain divinely-inspired texts, millennial scriptures, apocalyptic thought systems, and fundamentalist religious ideologies (such as the ones espousing the imminence of “rupture”). Unless one declares these doctrines and writings insane, her actions are not.

we are forced to the conclusion that the murderous mother is perfectly sane. Her frame of reference is different to ours. Hence, her definitions of right and wrong are idiosyncratic. To her, killing her babies was the right thing to do and in conformity with valued teachings and her own epiphany. Her grasp of reality – the immediate and later consequences of her actions – was never impaired.

It would seem that sanity and insanity are relative terms, dependent on frames of cultural and social reference, and statistically defined. There isn’t – and, in principle, can never emerge – an “objective”, medical, scientific test to determine mental health or disease unequivocally.

VIII. Adaptation and Insanity – (correspondence with Paul Shirley, MSW)

“Normal” people adapt to their environment – both human and natural.

“Abnormal” ones try to adapt their environment – both human and natural – to their idiosyncratic needs/profile.

If they succeed, their environment, both human (society) and natural is pathologized.

About the Author

Sam Vaknin is the author of Malignant Self Love – Narcissism Revisited and After the Rain – How the West Lost the East. He is a columnist for Central Europe Review, PopMatters, and eBookWeb , a United Press International (UPI) Senior Business Correspondent, and the editor of mental health and Central East Europe categories in The Open Directory Bellaonline, and Suite101 .

Visit Sam’s Web site at http://samvak.tripod.com

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